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Real-World Emission Factors for Andean Light-Duty Vehicles Based on a PSVm10-Validated Driving Cycle Across 0–4000 m Altitude

Montuf́ar-Paz P.A.; Cuisano J.; Abarca-Pérez E.P.; Razo-Cifuentes A.V.; Bravo-Morocho V.D. · Vehicles (2026) · DOI: 10.3390/vehicles8080179

Resumen

Emission inventories for high-altitude Andean cities rely on sea-level certification cycles that misrepresent real-world combustion conditions. This study derives altitude-resolved emission factors (EFs) for light-duty gasoline vehicles across 0–4000 m a.s.l. in Ecuador using the purpose-built Andean Ecuador Driving Cycle (aedc), validated against naturalistic data via the Percentile Speed Vector metric (PSVm10; IGS (Formula presented.) vs. IGS (Formula presented.) for the WLTC). Ten vehicles (Euro III–V) were instrumented with OBD-II and portable analysers recording (Formula presented.), (Formula presented.), (Formula presented.), and (Formula presented.) at 1 Hz over a four-year campaign (2021–2025; ≈2000 h). K-Means clustering on PSVm10 identified five operating regimes (silhouette ≈0.384). Under dynamically equivalent aedc conditions, (Formula presented.), (Formula presented.), and (Formula presented.) all peaked in the 1000–2000 m band ((Formula presented.) : (Formula presented.), (Formula presented.) the sea-level value; (Formula presented.) : (Formula presented.), (Formula presented.) ; (Formula presented.) : (Formula presented.), (Formula presented.)), fell in the 2000–3000 m band, and partially rebounded above 3000 m ((Formula presented.) : (Formula presented.)); (Formula presented.) instead declined monotonically with altitude (182 to (Formula presented.), (Formula presented.)), tracking a near-stable-to-slightly-declining fuel consumption (8.56 to (Formula presented.)) consistent with reduced aerodynamic drag at altitude partially offsetting the density penalty. These results show that altitude affects pollutants through distinct, non-monotonic mechanisms rather than a uniform trend, so that single-coefficient altitude corrections introduce systematic bias in Andean emission inventories.

Instituciones: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú