Comparative Assessment of UAV-Based TSEB and Field-Calibrated AquaCrop for Evapotranspiration on the Arid Coast of Peru

Peña-Amaro R.; Huanuqueño-Murillo J.; Ramos-Fernández L.; Ramos-Ayala A.; Quispe-Tito D.; Cruz-Villacorta L.; Heros-Aguilar E.; Pino-Vargas E.; Torres-Rua A. · Remote Sensing (2026) · DOI: 10.3390/rs18060856

Resumen

Highlights: What are the main findings? Direct lysimeter validation (24 drainage lysimeters) confirmed high accuracy of the field-calibrated AquaCrop model (R2 = 0.85; RMSE = 0.26 mm d−1; MBE = 0.01 mm d−1) and moderate accuracy of UAV–TSEB (R2 = 0.66; RMSE = 0.81 mm d−1; MBE = 1.01 mm d−1) under continuous flooding. UAV–TSEB and AquaCrop showed consistent seasonal ET dynamics and robust flux partitioning, with good agreement for total ET (R2 = 0.70; RMSE = 1.35 mm d−1), crop transpiration (R2 = 0.79; RMSE = 0.99 mm d−1), and soil evaporation (R2 = 0.76; RMSE = 1.03 mm d−1). A systematic divergence emerged during dense canopy flooded conditions: AquaCrop tended to suppress soil evaporation, whereas UAV–TSEB detected residual evaporation from the flooded surface, highlighting structural differences between daily water-balance and instantaneous energy-balance frameworks. What are the implications of the main findings? The validation framework strengthens confidence in using AquaCrop as a temporally continuous “backbone” and UAV–TSEB as a spatial diagnostic tool, combining daily continuity with spatially explicit ET heterogeneity for field auditing. The proposed hybrid approach supports precision irrigation management and WUE-oriented decision making in arid flooded rice systems, by enabling interpretation of productive (T) vs. non-productive (E) water losses and identifying conditions where residual evaporation persists despite canopy closure. Precise estimation of evapotranspiration (ET) is essential for sustainable water management in arid agroecosystems, particularly for high-water-demand crops such as rice. This study integrated very-high-resolution UAV thermal–multispectral imagery with a Two-Source Energy Balance model (UAV–TSEB) and a field-calibrated AquaCrop model to quantify daily ET and its components under continuous flooding on the arid Peruvian coast during the 2024–2025 season. A network of 24 drainage lysimeters provided an independent observational benchmark (ETlys); to represent the treatment-level response, lysimeter observations were aggregated as the mean across the 24 units for each UAV campaign. Thirteen UAV surveys supplied radiometric surface temperature and biophysical inputs (e.g., NDVI and fractional cover) to derive spatially explicit ET, while AquaCrop provided continuous daily simulations between flight dates. Direct lysimeter-based validation indicated high agreement for AquaCrop (R2 = 0.85; RMSE = 0.26 mm d−1; MBE = 0.01 mm d−1) and moderate agreement for UAV–TSEB (R2 = 0.66; RMSE = 0.81 mm d−1; MBE = 1.01 mm d−1). Model intercomparison further showed consistent temporal dynamics of ET (R2 = 0.70; RMSE = 1.35 mm d−1) and robust partitioning of crop transpiration (R2 = 0.79; RMSE = 0.99 mm d−1) and soil evaporation (R2 = 0.76; RMSE = 1.03 mm d−1) while revealing a systematic divergence under near-complete canopy cover: AquaCrop tended to suppress evaporation, whereas UAV–TSEB detected residual evaporation from the flooded surface. Overall, the results highlight the complementarity of both approaches—UAV–TSEB as a spatial diagnostic tool and AquaCrop as a temporally continuous simulator—providing a robust framework for ET monitoring, flux partitioning, and water-use-efficiency assessment in water-scarce rice systems.

Instituciones: Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina; Universidad Nacional Jorge Basadre Grohmann